A strong Secondary 3 vocabulary list for Grade 9 students should help them do something intellectually difficult: separate a claim from its evidence, identify assumptions, compare competing explanations, evaluate source credibility and write an argument whose conclusion does not travel further than the evidence permits. This Top 100 Secondary 3 Vocabulary List therefore concentrates on critical thinking, argument, evidence and source evaluation vocabulary rather than collecting impressive words without a reasoning purpose.

Students searching for Grade 9 vocabulary words, critical thinking vocabulary, argument vocabulary, evidence vocabulary, source evaluation terms, academic vocabulary with meanings and examples, or words for argumentative writing are often trying to solve the same problem. They need language for thinking about thinking. A student may understand a topic but still struggle to explain why one source is more credible, why a conclusion is too broad, why correlation is not causation, or how a counterargument changes the strength of a claim.

This guide is world-facing and curriculum-neutral. The words can travel across English, Humanities, Geography, Science, research projects, media literacy and interdisciplinary work. Maren focuses on the architecture of an argument and the precision of the sentence; Iona focuses on what the text and evidence actually permit a reader to infer; Leonie focuses on retrieval, timed execution and recovery when a word is known receptively but cannot yet be produced independently.

How this list is different from a generic advanced vocabulary list

The words below are selected because they perform reasoning jobs. Some name parts of an argument: premise, claim, warrant, evidence, counterargument and conclusion. Some regulate confidence: plausible, provisional, tentative, sufficient and robust. Some help evaluate sources: authority, credibility, bias, relevance, accuracy and transparency. Others protect students from reasoning errors: correlation, causation, generalisation, ambiguity and fallacy. Learning the network is more valuable than memorising one hundred disconnected definitions.

Study in sets of ten. For every word, explain it in plain language, use it in a sentence, contrast it with a nearby concept, and apply it to a fresh source or claim. Retrieval should come before rereading during later practice. A word has become productive only when the student can choose it independently and preserve its meaning under pressure.

1. Claims and argument structure

1. assertion

Meaning and reasoning job. assertion is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use assertion to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place assertion in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace assertion with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using assertion would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

2. argument

Meaning and reasoning job. argument is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use argument to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place argument in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace argument with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using argument would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

3. assumption

Meaning and reasoning job. assumption is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use assumption to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place assumption in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace assumption with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using assumption would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

4. authority

Meaning and reasoning job. authority is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use authority to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place authority in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace authority with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using authority would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

5. bias

Meaning and reasoning job. bias is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use bias to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place bias in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace bias with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using bias would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

6. claim

Meaning and reasoning job. claim is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use claim to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place claim in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace claim with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using claim would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

7. coherence

Meaning and reasoning job. coherence is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use coherence to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place coherence in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace coherence with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using coherence would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

8. concede

Meaning and reasoning job. concede is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use concede to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place concede in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace concede with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using concede would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

9. conclusion

Meaning and reasoning job. conclusion is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use conclusion to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place conclusion in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace conclusion with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using conclusion would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

10. context

Meaning and reasoning job. context is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use context to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place context in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace context with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using context would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

2. Evidence and source judgement

11. counterargument

Meaning and reasoning job. counterargument is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use counterargument to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place counterargument in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace counterargument with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using counterargument would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

12. credibility

Meaning and reasoning job. credibility is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use credibility to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place credibility in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace credibility with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using credibility would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

13. criterion

Meaning and reasoning job. criterion is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use criterion to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place criterion in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace criterion with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using criterion would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

14. critique

Meaning and reasoning job. critique is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use critique to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place critique in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace critique with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using critique would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

15. deduce

Meaning and reasoning job. deduce is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use deduce to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place deduce in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace deduce with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using deduce would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

16. distinguish

Meaning and reasoning job. distinguish is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use distinguish to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place distinguish in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace distinguish with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using distinguish would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

17. evidence

Meaning and reasoning job. evidence is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use evidence to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place evidence in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace evidence with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using evidence would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

18. fallacy

Meaning and reasoning job. fallacy is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use fallacy to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place fallacy in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace fallacy with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using fallacy would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

19. infer

Meaning and reasoning job. infer is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use infer to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place infer in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace infer with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using infer would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

20. interpret

Meaning and reasoning job. interpret is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use interpret to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place interpret in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace interpret with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using interpret would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

3. Reasoning and inference

21. justify

Meaning and reasoning job. justify is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use justify to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place justify in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace justify with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using justify would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

22. logic

Meaning and reasoning job. logic is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use logic to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place logic in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace logic with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using logic would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

23. nuance

Meaning and reasoning job. nuance is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use nuance to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place nuance in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace nuance with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using nuance would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

24. objection

Meaning and reasoning job. objection is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use objection to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place objection in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace objection with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using objection would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

25. perspective

Meaning and reasoning job. perspective is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use perspective to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place perspective in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace perspective with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using perspective would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

26. premise

Meaning and reasoning job. premise is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use premise to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place premise in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace premise with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using premise would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

27. qualify

Meaning and reasoning job. qualify is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use qualify to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place qualify in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace qualify with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using qualify would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

28. reasoning

Meaning and reasoning job. reasoning is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use reasoning to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place reasoning in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace reasoning with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using reasoning would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

29. rebut

Meaning and reasoning job. rebut is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use rebut to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place rebut in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace rebut with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using rebut would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

30. refute

Meaning and reasoning job. refute is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use refute to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place refute in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace refute with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using refute would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

4. Counterarguments and evaluation

31. relevance

Meaning and reasoning job. relevance is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use relevance to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place relevance in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace relevance with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using relevance would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

32. reliable

Meaning and reasoning job. reliable is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use reliable to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place reliable in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace reliable with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using reliable would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

33. scope

Meaning and reasoning job. scope is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use scope to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place scope in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace scope with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using scope would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

34. source

Meaning and reasoning job. source is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use source to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place source in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace source with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using source would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

35. stance

Meaning and reasoning job. stance is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use stance to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place stance in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace stance with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using stance would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

36. support

Meaning and reasoning job. support is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use support to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place support in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace support with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using support would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

37. synthesis

Meaning and reasoning job. synthesis is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use synthesis to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place synthesis in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace synthesis with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using synthesis would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

38. valid

Meaning and reasoning job. valid is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use valid to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place valid in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace valid with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using valid would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

39. verify

Meaning and reasoning job. verify is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use verify to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place verify in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace verify with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using verify would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

40. warrant

Meaning and reasoning job. warrant is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use warrant to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place warrant in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace warrant with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using warrant would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

5. Research evidence and data

41. accuracy

Meaning and reasoning job. accuracy is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use accuracy to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place accuracy in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace accuracy with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using accuracy would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

42. ambiguity

Meaning and reasoning job. ambiguity is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use ambiguity to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place ambiguity in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace ambiguity with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using ambiguity would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

43. analogy

Meaning and reasoning job. analogy is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use analogy to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place analogy in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace analogy with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using analogy would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

44. anecdote

Meaning and reasoning job. anecdote is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use anecdote to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place anecdote in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace anecdote with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using anecdote would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

45. appeal

Meaning and reasoning job. appeal is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use appeal to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place appeal in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace appeal with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using appeal would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

46. causation

Meaning and reasoning job. causation is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use causation to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place causation in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace causation with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using causation would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

47. citation

Meaning and reasoning job. citation is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use citation to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place citation in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace citation with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using citation would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

48. consistency

Meaning and reasoning job. consistency is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use consistency to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place consistency in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace consistency with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using consistency would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

49. correlation

Meaning and reasoning job. correlation is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use correlation to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place correlation in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace correlation with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using correlation would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

50. counterexample

Meaning and reasoning job. counterexample is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use counterexample to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place counterexample in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace counterexample with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using counterexample would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

6. Causal and statistical caution

51. data

Meaning and reasoning job. data is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use data to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place data in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace data with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using data would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

52. definition

Meaning and reasoning job. definition is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use definition to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place definition in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace definition with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using definition would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

53. demonstrate

Meaning and reasoning job. demonstrate is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use demonstrate to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place demonstrate in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace demonstrate with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using demonstrate would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

54. derive

Meaning and reasoning job. derive is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use derive to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place derive in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace derive with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using derive would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

55. discrepancy

Meaning and reasoning job. discrepancy is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use discrepancy to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place discrepancy in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace discrepancy with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using discrepancy would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

56. empirical

Meaning and reasoning job. empirical is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use empirical to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place empirical in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace empirical with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using empirical would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

57. evaluate

Meaning and reasoning job. evaluate is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use evaluate to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place evaluate in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace evaluate with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using evaluate would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

58. explanation

Meaning and reasoning job. explanation is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use explanation to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place explanation in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace explanation with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using explanation would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

59. fact

Meaning and reasoning job. fact is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use fact to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place fact in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace fact with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using fact would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

60. framework

Meaning and reasoning job. framework is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use framework to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place framework in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace framework with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using framework would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

7. Explanation and academic communication

61. generalisation

Meaning and reasoning job. generalisation is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use generalisation to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place generalisation in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace generalisation with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using generalisation would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

62. hypothesis

Meaning and reasoning job. hypothesis is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use hypothesis to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place hypothesis in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace hypothesis with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using hypothesis would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

63. implication

Meaning and reasoning job. implication is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use implication to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place implication in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace implication with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using implication would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

64. indicator

Meaning and reasoning job. indicator is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use indicator to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place indicator in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace indicator with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using indicator would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

65. limitation

Meaning and reasoning job. limitation is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use limitation to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place limitation in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace limitation with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using limitation would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

66. method

Meaning and reasoning job. method is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use method to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place method in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace method with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using method would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

67. observation

Meaning and reasoning job. observation is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use observation to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place observation in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace observation with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using observation would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

68. probability

Meaning and reasoning job. probability is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use probability to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place probability in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace probability with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using probability would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

69. proportion

Meaning and reasoning job. proportion is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use proportion to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place proportion in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace proportion with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using proportion would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

70. representative

Meaning and reasoning job. representative is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use representative to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place representative in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace representative with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using representative would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

8. Precision, scope and qualification

71. sample

Meaning and reasoning job. sample is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use sample to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place sample in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace sample with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using sample would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

72. significant

Meaning and reasoning job. significant is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use significant to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place significant in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace significant with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using significant would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

73. statistic

Meaning and reasoning job. statistic is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use statistic to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place statistic in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace statistic with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using statistic would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

74. trend

Meaning and reasoning job. trend is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use trend to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place trend in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace trend with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using trend would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

75. uncertainty

Meaning and reasoning job. uncertainty is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use uncertainty to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place uncertainty in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace uncertainty with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using uncertainty would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

76. variable

Meaning and reasoning job. variable is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use variable to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place variable in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace variable with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using variable would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

77. acknowledge

Meaning and reasoning job. acknowledge is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use acknowledge to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place acknowledge in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace acknowledge with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using acknowledge would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

78. articulate

Meaning and reasoning job. articulate is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use articulate to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place articulate in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace articulate with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using articulate would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

79. clarify

Meaning and reasoning job. clarify is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use clarify to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place clarify in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace clarify with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using clarify would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

80. compare

Meaning and reasoning job. compare is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use compare to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place compare in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace compare with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using compare would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

9. Source reading and synthesis

81. contrast

Meaning and reasoning job. contrast is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use contrast to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place contrast in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace contrast with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using contrast would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

82. elaborate

Meaning and reasoning job. elaborate is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use elaborate to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place elaborate in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace elaborate with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using elaborate would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

83. emphasise

Meaning and reasoning job. emphasise is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use emphasise to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place emphasise in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace emphasise with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using emphasise would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

84. establish

Meaning and reasoning job. establish is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use establish to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place establish in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace establish with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using establish would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

85. examine

Meaning and reasoning job. examine is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use examine to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place examine in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace examine with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using examine would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

86. explicit

Meaning and reasoning job. explicit is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use explicit to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place explicit in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace explicit with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using explicit would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

87. implicit

Meaning and reasoning job. implicit is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use implicit to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place implicit in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace implicit with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using implicit would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

88. objective

Meaning and reasoning job. objective is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use objective to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place objective in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace objective with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using objective would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

89. paraphrase

Meaning and reasoning job. paraphrase is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use paraphrase to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place paraphrase in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace paraphrase with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using paraphrase would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

90. precise

Meaning and reasoning job. precise is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use precise to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place precise in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace precise with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using precise would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

10. Judgement and transfer

91. provisional

Meaning and reasoning job. provisional is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use provisional to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place provisional in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace provisional with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using provisional would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

92. summarise

Meaning and reasoning job. summarise is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use summarise to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place summarise in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace summarise with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using summarise would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

93. trace

Meaning and reasoning job. trace is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use trace to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place trace in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace trace with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using trace would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

94. transparent

Meaning and reasoning job. transparent is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use transparent to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place transparent in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace transparent with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using transparent would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

95. balanced

Meaning and reasoning job. balanced is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use balanced to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place balanced in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace balanced with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using balanced would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

96. plausible

Meaning and reasoning job. plausible is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use plausible to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place plausible in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace plausible with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using plausible would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

97. robust

Meaning and reasoning job. robust is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use robust to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place robust in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace robust with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using robust would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

98. sufficient

Meaning and reasoning job. sufficient is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use sufficient to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place sufficient in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace sufficient with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using sufficient would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

99. tentative

Meaning and reasoning job. tentative is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use tentative to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place tentative in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace tentative with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using tentative would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

100. underlying

Meaning and reasoning job. underlying is an academic reasoning word. At Secondary 3, learn it by asking what job it performs in an argument: does it name a statement, connect evidence to a conclusion, set a boundary, evaluate a source, express uncertainty, compare explanations or challenge a weakness? A precise definition matters, but the reasoning job is what makes the word usable.

Critical-reading example. Imagine two sources discussing the same issue but reaching different conclusions. Use underlying to explain one meaningful difference between them. Name the exact sentence, statistic, method, assumption or piece of context that supports your interpretation. This prevents the vocabulary from becoming a label pasted onto a source without evidence.

Writing transfer. Maren’s route: place underlying in a sentence that advances an argument rather than merely sounding formal, then check the paragraph’s claim → evidence → reasoning sequence. Iona’s route: underline the evidence that licenses the sentence and narrow the wording if the evidence supports less than you first claimed. Leonie’s route: close the page, retrieve the meaning, create a fresh example in another subject, and repeat later under a short time limit.

Precision test. Replace underlying with a nearby ordinary word. If the sentence loses an important distinction, the academic word is doing useful work. If the sentence means exactly the same thing, revise. Then create a non-example: a sentence in which using underlying would be misleading. Knowing where a word does not fit is part of mastery.

Ten distinctions Secondary 3 students should be able to explain

Claim versus evidence: a claim is what a writer asks the reader to accept; evidence is information offered in support. Fact versus conclusion: a fact may be established or verifiable, while a conclusion is a judgement reached from information. Correlation versus causation: variables moving together does not by itself establish that one produced the other. Authority versus credibility: status can be relevant, but credibility also depends on expertise, method, evidence, transparency and context. Counterargument versus rebuttal: a counterargument challenges a position; a rebuttal responds to that challenge.

Premise versus conclusion: premises provide reasons from which a conclusion is drawn. Inference versus assumption: an inference should be licensed by evidence; an assumption is accepted, sometimes provisionally, without being established by the immediate evidence. Reliable versus valid: consistency is not identical to measuring or supporting the intended thing. Significant versus important: statistical significance is a technical evidential idea and does not automatically imply a large or practically important effect. Plausible versus proven: a plausible explanation may fit the evidence while alternatives remain possible.

Source-evaluation laboratory

Take one news report, one institutional explanation and one research-based source on the same non-controversial topic. Do not begin by deciding which source you like. First identify each source’s claim and scope. Then locate evidence, note what is directly observed and what is inferred, examine the method behind any numbers, identify missing context, and look for language that signals certainty or uncertainty. Finally write a comparison that explains why particular claims deserve more or less confidence. The purpose is not to become permanently suspicious; it is to make confidence proportional to evidence.

Argument-building laboratory

Write a six-sentence argument. Sentence one states a qualified claim. Sentence two supplies relevant evidence. Sentence three explains the warrant connecting evidence to claim. Sentence four acknowledges a credible counterargument. Sentence five responds without caricaturing the opposing position. Sentence six gives a conclusion whose scope matches the evidence. Now revise the paragraph using five words from this list. Every added word must sharpen a distinction; delete any word that merely makes the prose sound more sophisticated.

A four-week mastery plan

Week 1: learn words 1–25 through definitions, contrasts and short source annotations. Week 2: learn 26–50 and combine them with the first set in claim–evidence exercises. Week 3: learn 51–75 through data, causal claims and source comparisons. Week 4: learn 76–100, then mix all words through retrieval rather than rereading. At the end of each week, choose ten words randomly and explain each without the list. If you can define a word but cannot use it accurately, it remains receptive rather than productive.

Final Grade 9 transfer challenge

Choose an unfamiliar explanatory article and a second source on the same topic. In 300–500 words, identify their central claims, compare evidence, examine assumptions, evaluate credibility, distinguish observation from inference, identify any important limitation, and state what conclusion the combined evidence supports. Use at least twelve words from this list naturally. Then remove every technical word one at a time. Keep only the words whose removal makes the reasoning less precise. That final editing step captures the purpose of advanced vocabulary: not difficulty for its own sake, but more accurate thought.